Legal regime of archipelagic states (2) Nugroho Wisnumurti  ;   A former member of the Indonesian delegation to the UN Third Conference on the Law of the Sea and former Ambassador/permanent representative of Indonesia to the UN in New York and in Geneva. He is currently an Of Counsel at Ali Budiardjo, Nugroho, Reksodiputro (ABNR) Counselors at Law in Jakarta

JAKARTA POST, 28 Maret 2014

                                      

                                                                                         

                                                             

Efforts to galvanize support for archipelagic state principles were made in different forums outside the third UN Conference on the Law of the Sea, such as the Asia-Africa Legal Consultative Committee (AALCC), the group of developing countries (Group of 77) and ASEAN, which sent special missions to different countries. These efforts continued to be pursued concurrently with a series of negotiations and lobbying during the sessions of the conference. A decisive factor that had also helped Indonesia’s success was a series of bilateral negotiations with neighboring countries and with major maritime states such as the US, UK, Soviet Union and Australia. Negotiations with Malaysia had been focused on the rights of navigation through the waters connecting East Malaysia and West Malaysia, which would be cut off by the Indonesian waters, and on the existing fisheries rights in the Indonesian waters. Negotiations with Singapore and Thailand were concentrated on the traditional fisheries rights in and navigational rights through the Indonesian waters. Difficult negotiations with Malaysia finally led to the agreement reached in 1982 under which Malaysia recognized the legal regime of archipelagic states while Indonesia recognized Malaysia’s existing rights in the Indonesian waters. The traditional fishing rights of Singapore and Thailand had been accommodated in the 1982 Convention. Equally difficult were negotiations with major maritime states represented basically by the US and the Soviet Union. The focus of the negotiations was on the right of navigation of foreign vessels through the designated sea lanes and the overflight of foreign aircraft above the sea lanes in archipelagic waters, and also on the obligations of foreign vessels traversing the sea lanes and foreign aircraft flying above the sea lanes to respect the sovereignty and the national interest of the archipelagic state. The last of the series of negotiations took place in 1977 in New York between the core members of the Indonesian delegation chaired by then foreign minister Mochtar Kusumaatmadja and the core members of the US delegation chaired by Ambassador Elliot L. Richardson, former US attorney general. The negotiations that proceeded in a very tense atmosphere finally succeeded in reaching an agreement on certain outstanding crucial legal provisions, thereby completing the whole set of legal regimes on archipelagic state, later accepted by the conference. It should be kept in mind that the negotiations on archipelagic states were closely related to negotiations and agreements reached on the legal regime of transit passage through straits used for international navigation, including the Malacca and Singapore straits. The success of Indonesia’s diplomacy and negotiations to gain international recognition of archipelagic states could have not been achieved without the sustained systematic and integrated collective efforts of the various players. First and foremost was the pivotal role of the chairman of the Indonesian delegation, Prof. Kusumaatmadja, then Indonesian foreign minister and previously the justice minister. It is also necessary to note the important role played by the three vice chairmen of the delegation, Ambassador Chaidir Anwar Sani, Ambassador Abdullah Kamil and Air Marshall Soedarmono. The significant contribution of the negotiators in the field, especially Dr. Djalal who acted as the chief negotiator, also deserves recognition. It is also essential to recognize the important role of Pankorwilnas, a high level coordinating national committee chaired by Soedarmono, in building national consensus on issues before the conference. It is in Pankorwilnas that the Indonesian position on various aspects of sovereignty and jurisdiction, maritime delimitation, natural resources, marine environments and marine scientific research were discussed and formulated and brought before the sessions of the conference. It is worth mentioning also the importance of the doctrine “Wawasan Nusantara” (archipelagic outlook), developed especially by the National Resilience Institute (Lemhannas) to serve as a conceptual framework for the Indonesian position on archipelagic states. “Wawasan Nusantara” represents the national outlook of the nation on itself and its environment, which is essentially the national unity and territorial integrity of Indonesia. The international recognition of the legal regime on archipelagic states significantly enlarged the Indonesian waters under its sovereignty and jurisdiction and has opened the opportunity for Indonesia to utilize these gains for its national development. Indonesia’s development has so far given too much emphasis to land-based development. It is time now for the new government to complement it with maritime-based development through integrated strategies and policies, inter alia on inter-insular shipping (including cabotage), utilization of living and non-living marine resources, marine environments, marine scientific research and national defense. For this purpose, it is necessary to establish a high level coordinating body like Pankorwilnas under the President, with a comprehensive mandate. This will be a challenge facing the new government. ●

Legal regimes of archipelagic states Nugroho Wisnumurti ;   A former member of the Indonesian delegation to the UN Third Conference on the Law of the Sea and former ambassador/permanent representative of Indonesia to the UN in New York and in Geneva. He is currently a counsel at Ali Budiardjo, Nugroho, Reksodiputro (ABNR) Counselors at Law in Jakarta

JAKARTA POST,  27 Maret 2014

                                                                                                                        

                                                                                         

                                                      

As we celebrate the 80th birthday of Prof. Hasjim Djalal, the renowned expert on the law of the sea, we are reminded of the long drawn-out struggle to gain international recognition for the legal regime of this archipelagic state. It all started with the declaration of the Indonesian government in 1957 that the country’s territorial sea of 12 nautical miles was drawn from straight baselines connecting the outermost points of the outermost Indonesian islands, where the waters enclosed by the straight baselines are internal waters subject to Indonesia’s sovereignty while allowing the innocent passage of foreign vessels. The declaration, widely known as the Djuanda Declaration of 1957, was later reaffirmed in the Government Regulation in lieu of Law No. 4/1960 on Indonesian territorial seas and Government Regulation No. 8/1962 on the innocent passage of foreign vessels. The Djuanda Declaration of 1957 constituted a very important breakthrough in fostering Indonesia’s national interests in the fields of law, politics, economy, culture and the protection of territorial integrity and national unity. The major contributions of former prime minister Djuanda Kartawidjaja, then-veterans’ affairs minister Chaerul Saleh and Mochtar Kusumaatmadja, expert on the law of the sea, in this respect are widely recognized. The Djuanda Declaration of 1957 was immediately opposed by major maritime states like the United States, United Kingdom, Soviet Union as well as the Netherlands and Australia, which considered the declaration to be in violation of international laws on freedom of navigation. The first attempt to gain international recognition of the archipelagic state principles was at the first UN Conference on the Law of the Sea in Geneva in 1958. The Indonesian delegation at the conference was chaired by Achmad Soebardjo, Indonesian Ambassador to Switzerland and former foreign minister. The efforts by Indonesia and the Philippines at the conference failed. Likewise, their attempts at the second conference in 1960 ended in failure. Indonesian diplomacy gained momentum when the UN held the third conference. The conference, initiated on the basis of a proposal by ambassador Arvid Pardo, permanent representative of Malta to the UN, was originally to be convened to regulate the use of mineral resources on the seabed beyond the national jurisdiction, which constitute “common heritage of mankind”. Finally it was agreed that the mandate of the third conference would include a review of the Geneva conventions of 1958 on territorial seas, the high seas, fisheries and the continental shelf. The conference also considered the jurisdiction of coastal states on the living resources beyond national jurisdiction (that eventually led to the adoption of the legal regime of the Exclusive Economic Zone, or EEZ), as well as the rights of transit passage through straits used for international navigation. As a result of the joint diplomacy by Indonesia and the Philippines, the legal regime of archipelagic states was added to the agenda of the conference. Indonesia’s diplomacy and negotiations had been long drawn-out, facing difficult challenges, from the time that Indonesia became a member of the preparatory committee of the conference, known as the “Seabed Committee” (1970-1973), until the adoption of the Convention on the Law of the Sea in 1982. On March 22, 1971, the Indonesian delegation to the Seabed Committee, chaired by ambassador Umarjadi Notowijono, permanent representative of Indonesia to the UN in Geneva, as well as Kusumaatmadja as vice chairman, reintroduced the concept of archipelagic state. Subsequently, Indonesia collaborated with the Philippines, Fiji and Mauritius as the so-called archipelagic states group. The group for the first time submitted to the Seabed Committee three principles on archipelagic states, as contained in a 1973 document of the Seabed Committee. The diplomatic struggle continued at the third conference, the first session of which was held in Caracas and lasted for three months, the longest ever session of an international conference. ●

Rezim Hukum Negara Kepulauan Nugroho Wisnumurti  ;   Mantan Dubes RI untuk PBB di New York dan Geneva

KOMPAS,  18 Maret 2014

                                      

                                                                                         

                                                                                                             

BARU-baru ini Prof Dr Hasjim Djalal memperingati ulang tahun ke-80. Ulang tahunnya dirayakan dengan meriah di Jakarta disertai peluncuran biografi Patriot Negara Kepulauan. Peristiwa itu menghidupkan kembali kenangan mengenai perjuangan Indonesia yang panjang dan penuh tantangan hingga berhasil mendapat pengakuan internasional terhadap rezim hukum tentang negara kepulauan. Perjuangan RI dimulai dengan Deklarasi Djuanda, tahun 1957. Di sana ditetapkan bahwa laut wilayah RI adalah 12 mil laut yang ditarik dari garis-garis pangkal lurus yang menghubungkan titik-titik terluar dari pulau-pulau terluar. Adapun perairan di sebelah dalam garis pangkal ini merupakan laut pedalaman di bawah kedaulatan RI dengan hak lintas damai untuk kapal-kapal asing. Deklarasi ini ditindaklanjuti dengan diterbitkannya Peraturan Pemerintah Pengganti UU No 4/1960 tentang Perairan Indonesia dan PP No 8/1962 tentang Lalu Lintas Laut Damai Kendaraan Air Asing dalam Perairan Indonesia. Deklarasi Djuanda 1957 merupakan terobosan sangat penting di bidang hukum, politik, ekonomi, budaya, integritas wilayah negara, dan keutuhan bangsa Indonesia. Hal itu tak lepas dari kontribusi dan peranan sangat menentukan dari Perdana Menteri Djuanda Kartawidjaja, Menteri Veteran Chaerul Saleh, dan pakar hukum laut Dr Mochtar Kusumaatmaja. Adalah Mochtar Kusumaatmadja, selaku anggota panitia nasional mengenai wilayah RI, yang mengusulkan diterapkannya prinsip garis dasar lurus yang ditarik dari titik-titik terluar dari pulau-pulau terluar RI. Tampaknya usul itu terinspirasi oleh keputusan Mahkamah Internasional tahun 1951 tentang penerapan prinsip garis pangkal lurus, tetapi untuk kepulauan pantai suatu negara pantai (coastal archipelago). Inspirasi lain mungkin datang dari keputusan Pemerintah Filipina dalam Note Verbale, Maret 1955, yang menegaskan semua perairan di antara dan yang menghubungkan pulau-pulau Filipina adalah bagian dari laut pedalaman dan ada di bawah kedaulatan Filipina. Perjuangan diplomasi Deklarasi Djuanda 1957 langsung ditolak, terutama oleh negara-negara maritim besar seperti Amerika Serikat, Inggris, Uni Soviet, juga oleh Belanda dan Australia. Mereka mengecam dan menolak Deklarasi Djuanda karena penutupan laut di antara pulau-pulau Indonesia itu dianggap bertentangan dengan hukum internasional tentang kebebasan pelayaran. Perjuangan tahap pertama Indonesia untuk memperoleh pengakuan internasional terhadap rezim kepulauan adalah di Konferensi Hukum Laut (1958) di Geneva, Swiss. Ketua Delegasi RI adalah Achmad Soebardjo, Dubes RI di Bern, dan Mochtar Kusumaatmadja sebagai pakar hukum laut yang memperkuat delegasi RI. Perjuangan ini belum berhasil karena ditentang keras masyarakat internasional, terutama negara-negara maritim besar. Tahap kedua perjuangan RI adalah di Konferensi Hukum Laut II pada 1960 di Geneva yang juga menemui kegagalan. Perjuangan Indonesia untuk memperoleh pengakuan internasional mendapat momentum baru setelah PBB menyelenggarakan Konferensi Ketiga tentang Hukum Laut, 1973. Tujuan konferensi yang digerakkan oleh Dubes Arvid Pardo, Wakil Tetap Malta di PBB di New York, semula bertujuan untuk mengatur pemanfaatan sumber daya mineral di dasar laut di luar yurisdiksi nasional yang dinyatakan sebagai common heritage of mankind. Pada akhirnya konferensi ini juga akan meninjau kembali konvensi-konvensi Geneva tahun 1958 tentang laut wilayah, laut lepas, perikanan, dan landas kontinen. Selain itu, konferensi akan membuat rezim hukum baru mengenai sumber daya hayati di luar yurisdiksi nasional (kemudian menjadi ZEE) dan masalah yurisdiksi di selat yang biasanya digunakan untuk pelayaran internasional. Berkat perjuangan Indonesia dan Filipina, rezim hukum tentang negara kepulauan akhirnya masuk dalam agenda konferensi. Perjuangan diplomasi Indonesia di babak ketiga ini cukup panjang dan penuh tantangan, dari Indonesia menjadi anggota Komite Persiapan (dikenal dengan nama singkatannya Seabed Committee) tahun 1970-1973, kemudian di Konferensi Ketiga tentang Hukum Laut tahun 1973, hingga diadopsinya Konvensi PBB tentang Hukum Laut pada 1982. Pada 22 Maret 1971, Delegasi RI ke Komite Persiapan pada sidang di Geneva yang diketuai oleh Umarjadi Nyotowijono selaku Wakil Tetap RI untuk PBB di Geneva, dan Dr Mochtar Kusumaatmaja sebagai wakil ketua, mengajukan kembali konsep negara kepulauan. Dalam perjuangan selanjutnya Indonesia berkolaborasi dengan Filipina, Fiji, dan Mauritius (kelompok negara kepulauan) dengan mengadakan berbagai konsultasi dan perundingan, baik interen maupun dengan negara-negara lain pada tingkat bilateral dan multilateral. Perjuangan dilanjutkan di Konferensi Hukum Laut itu sendiri. Sidang substantif yang pertama berlangsung di Caracas, Venezuela, selama 3 bulan, sidang konferensi internasional terpanjang dalam sejarah modern. Penggalangan dukungan juga dilakukan di berbagai forum di luar Komite Persiapan, seperti di Asia-Africa Consultative Committee (AALCC), Kelompok 77 (kelompok negara berkembang), ASEAN, dan pengiriman misi-misi khusus RI ke sejumlah negara. Upaya-upaya ini terus digiatkan bersamaan dengan negosiasi-negosiasi dan kegiatan lobi di sidang-sidang Konferensi Ketiga Hukum Laut. Upaya yang sangat menentukan adalah serangkaian negosiasi bilateral dengan negara-negara tetangga dan negara-negara maritim besar seperti Amerika Serikat, Inggris, Uni Soviet, dan Australia. Perundingan dengan Malaysia mengenai hak pelayaran antara Malaysia Timur dan Malaysia Barat yang akan ”terpotong” oleh perairan Kepulauan Indonesia dan mengenai hak-hak Malaysia yang sudah ada yang akan tertutup oleh perairan Kepulauan Indonesia. Perundingan dengan Singapura dan Thailand mengenai hak perikanan tradisional dan hak pelayaran melalui perairan Kepulauan Indonesia. Melalui perundingan alot dengan Malaysia akhirnya disepakati Perjanjian RI-Malaysia pada 1982. Malaysia mengakui rezim negara kepulauan yang diperjuangkan Indonesia dan Indonesia mengakui hak-hak Malaysia yang sudah ada di perairan Kepulauan Indonesia. Kepentingan-kepentingan Singapura dan Thailand sudah terakomodasi dalam rezim hukum negara kepulauan dalam konvensi. Perundingan dengan negara-negara maritim besar yang diwakili Amerika Serikat dan Uni Soviet juga sangat alot. Perundingan terfokus pada ketentuan- ketentuan tentang hak pelayaran kapal asing melalui alur laut di perairan kepulauan, hak-hak negara kepulauan di alur laut, dan kewajiban-kewajiban kapal asing yang lewat untuk menghormati kedaulatan dan melindungi kepentingan negara kepulauan. Perundingan terakhir pada Maret 1977 di New York, antara delegasi terbatas RI yang dipimpin oleh Menlu Mochtar Kusumaatmadja dan delegasi terbatas AS yang dipimpin Duta Besar Elliot L Richardson, mantan Jaksa Agung AS. Perundingan yang sangat tegang itu akhirnya membuahkan kesepakatan terakhir mengenai beberapa masalah krusial. Ketentuan-ketentuan yang disepakati tersebut melengkapi ketentuan-ketentuan lain mengenai rezim hukum negara kepulauan, yang akhirnya disetujui oleh konferensi. Perlu orientasi ke laut Keberhasilan diplomasi dan perundingan Indonesia ini tidak bisa dicapai tanpa adanya upaya kolektif yang sistematis dan integral. Perjuangan juga tak mungkin berhasil tanpa dukungan konsensus nasional yang dicapai melalui peranan Panitia Koordinasi Wilayah Nasional (Pankorwilnas) yang mengoordinasikan semua instansi pemerintah dan pihak-pihak lain pemangku kepentingan. Adapun posisi delegasi RI dan Departemen Luar Negeri menjadi ujung tombak dalam perundingan-perundingan. Dengan diakuinya rezim negara kepulauan, yang telah menambah luas perairan Indonesia secara signifikan, membuka peluang bagi Indonesia untuk memanfaatkannya demi pembangunan nasional. Pembangunan nasional saat ini lebih berorientasi ke darat. Sudah waktunya pemerintah yang baru nanti melengkapinya dengan pembangunan yang berorientasi pada laut dengan strategi dan kebijakan yang integral, baik menyangkut pelayaran, pemanfaatan laut dari segi sumber daya hayati dan nabati, lingkungan maritim, maupun penelitian ilmiah kelautan. Untuk itu, perlu dibentuk badan nasional seperti Pankorwilnas, tetapi dengan cakupan yang lebih komprehensif, bukan hanya terbatas pada masalah kewilayahan. Badan nasional ini seyogianya berada di bawah presiden. Ini merupakan tantangan yang perlu dihadapi oleh Pemerintah RI yang baru. ●